How does the ammonium ion, NH 4 + , form?

The lone-pair electrons from the nitrogen atom of NH 3 bond to H + .

Nitrogen gives three electrons to three hydrogen atoms.

Two hydrogen atoms each give one electron to a shared pair.

A sodium atom transfers an electron to nitrogen.

Yaadannoo boqonnaa fi gaaffii shaakalaa

Boqonnaa 2 Keemistirii kutaa 11: Hidhoo Keemikaalaa

Wanti fuula kana irra jiru hundi boqonnaa 2 kitaaba Keemistirii kutaa 11 tiif: wanta boqonnaan haguugu, yaadannoo gabaabaa, gaaffii shaakalaa deebii isaanii waliin, fi viidiyoo barnootaa bakka jirutti.

10
Kaardii: 10
Gaaffii shaakalaa boqonnaa 2: 67–144
Fuula kitaabaa boqonnaa 2

Boqonnaan 2 maal haguuga

1.The Octet Rule
2.Types of Chemical Bonding
3.Ionic Bonds
4.Lewis Electron-Dot Symbols
5.Formation of Ionic Bonds
6.Exceptions to the Octet Rule in Ionic Compounds
7.Properties of Ionic Compounds
8.Covalent Bonds and Molecular Geometry
9.Molecular Geometry
10.Intermolecular Forces in Covalent Compounds
11.Metallic Bonding
12.Formation of Metallic Bonding
13.Electron-Sea Model
14.Properties of Metals and Bonding
15.Chemical Bonding Theories
16.Valence Bond (VB) Theory
17.Molecular Orbital Theory (MOT)
18.Types of Crystal

Yaadannoo gabaabaa boqonnaa 2

Kaardiiwwan fuula Keemistirii kutaa 11 irratti boqonnaa kana jala galmaa'an. Tokko tokkoon bani.

Poolaaritii Hidhoo fi Poolaaritii MolakiyuuliiDogoggora baratame

Yoom akka itti fayyadamtu

Molakiyuuliin hidhoo poolaarii qabu guutummaatti poolaarii yookiin noot-poolaarii ta'uu isaa murteessuuf kanatti fayyadami.

Of eeggadhu

Hidhoon poolaarii ta'uu qofaan molakiyuulichi yeroo hunda poolaarii hin ta'u. Bocoota simitirikii akka kaarboon daay'oksaayidii keessatti daayipooliin hidhoo wal haquun waliigalaan momentii daayipoolii zeeroo kenna.

Grade 11 Chemistry, fuula 67-144 irraa qophaa'e; osoo hin ba'in dura yeroo lama mirkanaa'e

Momentii DaayipooliiFoormulaa

\mu = \delta \times d

\mu = \delta \times d

$\mu$: momentii daayipoolii (dipole moment) $\text{C}\,\text{m}$
$\delta$: hamma chaarjii gartokkee (magnitude of partial charge) $\text{C}$
$d$: fageenya chaarjota gargar baasu (distance separating the charges) $\text{m}$

Yoom akka itti fayyadamtu

Foormulaa kanatti fayyadamuun momentii daayipoolii hidhoo kovaaleentii poolaarii yookiin molakiyuulii daay-atamikii hisaabi.

Of eeggadhu

Safartuu idilee hin taaneen, 1 Debye wal-qixa 3.33564 baay'isuu 10^-30 coulomb metres ta'a.

Grade 11 Chemistry, fuula 67-144 irraa qophaa'e; osoo hin ba'in dura yeroo lama mirkanaa'e

Muraa Seera OktetiiGabatee wabiiOctet gadi · Expanded octet · Odd-electron molecules

Garee	Elektiroonota Atamii Gidduu	Fakkeenyota
Octet gadi	electrons 8 gadi	$\text{BeCl}_2$ , $\text{BF}_3$ , $\text{AlCl}_3$
Expanded octet	electrons 8 ol	$\text{PF}_5$ , $\text{SF}_6$ , $\text{XeF}_4$
Odd-electron molecules	Lakkoofsa electrons odd ta'e	$\text{NO}$ , $\text{NO}_2$ , $\text{ClO}_2$

Yoom akka itti fayyadamtu

Molakiyuulota seera elektiroonii saddeetii (oktetii) hin hordofne yeroo adda baastu kanatti fayyadami.

Of eeggadhu

Ujoolleen piriyodii 3ffaa fi isaa gadii orbiitaalota d duwwaa ta'an fayyadamuun oktetii babal'isu, garuu elementootni piriyodii 2ffaa kana gochuu hin danda'an.

Grade 11 Chemistry, fuula 67-144 irraa qophaa'e; osoo hin ba'in dura yeroo lama mirkanaa'e

Hubannoo Dogoggoraa Caasaa RezoonaansiiDogoggora baratame

Yoom akka itti fayyadamtu

Caasaa rezoonaansii fi bakka bu'iinsa Luwiis kan molakiyuulota akka oozoonii yeroo hiiktu kanatti fayyadami.

Of eeggadhu

Rezoonaansiin molakiyuuliin caasaalee gidduutti deddeebi'a jechuu miti. Molakiyuuliin dhugaa caasaa wal-makaa dhaabbataa tokko qofa hidhoo giddu-galeessaa qabuudha.

Grade 11 Chemistry, fuula 67-144 irraa qophaa'e; osoo hin ba'in dura yeroo lama mirkanaa'e

Gosoota Jajjaboo KiristaalaaGabatee wabiiIonic · Molecular · Covalent network · +1

Gosa Jajjaboo	Suuddoolee	Humnawwan Harkisaa	Amaloota Ijoo	Fakkeenyota
Ionic	Cations fi anions	Ionic bonds	Melting point ol aanaa, kan salphaatti caccabu, molten state keessatti kan dabarsu	$\text{NaCl}, \text{CsCl}, \text{KCl}$
Molecular	Molecules yookiin atoms	Intermolecular forces	Melting point gadi aanaa, lallaafaa, non-conductors	$\text{H}_2\text{O}, \text{CO}_2, \text{C}_{12}\text{H}_{22}\text{O}_{11}$
Covalent network	Atoms	Covalent bonds	Melting point baay'ee ol aanaa, baay'ee jabaa, non-conductors	$\text{C (diamond)}, \text{SiO}_2, \text{Graphite}$
Metallic	Metal cations electron sea keessa jiran	Metallic bonds	Melting point jijjiiramaa, malleable, elektirikii kan dabarsu	$\text{Cu}, \text{Ag}, \text{Au}, \text{Fe}, \text{Al}$

Yoom akka itti fayyadamtu

Jajjaboo kiristaalaa gosa suuddoolee, humnoota walqabsiisaa fi amaloota fiizikaalaa irratti hundaa'uun ramaduuf fayyadamaa.

Of eeggadhu

Jajjaboon ayoonikii haala jajjaboo keessatti elektiriikii hin dabarsan፤ kan dabarsan yeroo baqan yookiin bishaan keessatti bulbulaman qofa.

Grade 11 Chemistry, fuula 145-192 irraa qophaa'e; osoo hin ba'in dura yeroo lama mirkanaa'e

Hidhoo sigma fi pi walirra bu'iinsa orbitaalii irraaSeera

Yoom akka itti fayyadamtu

Yeroo gaaffiin hidhoon covalent akkamitti akka uumamu, yookaan hidhoowwan C=C lamaan maaliif wal hin fakkaanne gaafatu fayyadami. Orbitaaliin valence walakkaan guutame lama yoo walirra bu'anii elektiroononni isaanii spin faallaa wajjin wal qabatan hidhoon uumama: walirra bu'iinsi fuulaan fuula sarara handhuuroota lamaan walitti fidu irratti hidhoo sigma kenna; walirra bu'iinsi cinaachaan orbitaalii p tarsiimoo lamaa immoo hidhoo pi kan rukkinni isaa sarara sanaa ol fi gaditti argamu kenna.

Of eeggadhu

Barattoonni hidhoo dachaa akka waan hidhoo wal fakkaatu lamaatti lakkaa'u; hidhoo C=C lammaffaas akka walirra bu'iinsa fuulaan fuula biraa handhuuroota gidduutti dhiibameetti kaasu. Atoomota lama gidduutti hidhoon jalqabaa qofti sigma; hidhoon dabalataa hundi pi. Kanaafuu C=C sigma tokkoo fi pi tokko; hidhoon pi gonkumaa kophaa isaa hin dhaabbatu. Cimdiin isaa handhuuroota gidduu utuu hin taane sarara sanaa ol fi gaditti waan taa'uuf pi hidhoo dadhabaa dha; fiixeewwan hidhoo dachaa lamaanis naanna'uu hin danda'an. Mallattoon + fi - lobii p irratti barreeffame mallattoo dambalii malee chaarjii elektirikii miti.

Sigma fi pi molakiyuulii keessatti lakkaa'uuSeera

n \text{ bonds between two atoms} \;=\; 1\,\sigma + (n-1)\,\pi

n \text{ bonds between two atoms} \;=\; 1\,\sigma + (n-1)\,\pi

$n$: bond order: baay'ina cimdii elektiroonaa atoomonni lamaan qooddatan; single 1, double 2, triple 3
$\sigma$: hidhoo sigma; walirra bu'iinsa fuulaan fuula sarara handhuuroota walitti fidu irraa dhufu
$\pi$: hidhoo pi; walirra bu'iinsa cinaachaa orbitaalii p tarsiimoo lamaa irraa dhufu

Yoom akka itti fayyadamtu

Yeroo gaaffiin molakiyuulii tokko keessa hidhoo sigma meeqa fi pi meeqa akka jiru gaafatu fayyadami. Sarara caasaa keessa jiru tokkoon tokkoon isaa akka sigma tokkootti lakkaa'i; itti aansuudhaan sarara dabalataa hidhoo dachaa yookaan sadeenii keessa jiru hundaaf pi tokko dabali.

Of eeggadhu

Barattoonni kan hidhoo baay'ee keessa jiru qofa lakkaa'anii sararri caasaa keessa jiru kaan hundi akka sigma ta'e irraanfatu. Waa'ee ethene, C2H4, yoo gaafataman sigma 1 fi pi 1 jedhu. Lakkoofsi sirriin garuu sigma C-H afur; C=C ofii isaatii sigma tokkoo fi pi tokko waan ta'eef, walumaagalatti sigma 5 fi pi 1. Ethyne, C2H2, sigma 3 fi pi 2. Amalli biraa hidhoo dachaa sigma 2 yookaan sadeenii sigma 3 jedhanii lakkaa'uu dha; atoomota wal fakkaatan lama gidduutti sigma tokkoo ol gonkumaa hin jiru.

Hybridization fi geometry inni murteessuGabatee wabiisp · sp^2 · sp^3 · +2

Hybrid set	Orbitaalota walmakan	Electron geometry	Rogaa hidhoo	Fakkeenyota
$sp$	$1s + 1p$	linear	180°	$\text{CO}_2$ , $\text{C}_2\text{H}_2$
$sp^{2}$	$1s + 2p$	trigonal planar	120°	$\text{BF}_3$ , $\text{C}_2\text{H}_4$
$sp^{3}$	$1s + 3p$	tetrahedral	109.5°	$\text{CH}_4$ , $\text{NH}_3$ , $\text{H}_2\text{O}$
$sp^{3}d$	$1s + 3p + 1d$	trigonal bipyramidal	120°, 90° and 180°	$\text{PCl}_5$
$sp^{3}d^{2}$	$1s + 3p + 2d$	octahedral	90° and 180°	$\text{SF}_6$

Yoom akka itti fayyadamtu

Yeroo boca naannoo atoomii gidduu jiruuf maqaa baasuu qabdu, yookaan hybridization Lewis structure irraa dubbisuu qabdu fayyadami. Electron domain atoomii sana irra jiran lone pair dabalatee lakkaa'i; lakkoofsi sun tarree siif filata: baay'inni orbitaalii hybrid yeroo hunda baay'ina orbitaalii atoomaa walmakaniin wal qixa.

Of eeggadhu

Barattoonni tarree geometry akka boca molakiyuulichaatti dubbisanii NH3 tetrahedral digrii 109.5 irratti jedhanii barreessu. Deebiin lamaan lakkoofsa adda addaa lama irraa dhufa. Hybridization electron domain hunda lone pair dabalatee lakkaa'a; kanaafuu NH3 fi H2O lamaanuu sp3; electron geometry isaanii lamaanuus tetrahedral. Bocni garuu atoomota qofa irraa waan maqaa argatuuf NH3 trigonal pyramidal gara digrii 107; H2O immoo bent gara digrii 104.5. Dogoggorri faallaa isaa lone pair dhiisanii H2O hidhoo lama waan qabuuf sp2 jechuu dha.

Bond energy fi bond length wal bira qabuuGabatee wabiiH-H · Cl-Cl · H-Cl · +4

Hidhoo	Bond order	Bond energy (kJ/mol)	Bond length (pm)
H-H	1	436	74
Cl-Cl	1	242	199
H-Cl	1	431	127
C-H	1	413	109
C-C	1	348	154
C=C	2	612	134
C≡C	3	837	120

Yoom akka itti fayyadamtu

Yeroo gaaffiin hidhoowwan lama jabinaan yookaan dheerinaan wal bira qabu, yookaan hidhoo moolii tokko cabsuuf anniisaan hangam barbaachisu gaafatu fayyadami. Tarreewwan sadan jalqabaa gatii sirrii molakiyuulota diatomic sanaa ti; tarreewwan kaarboonii garuu kompaawundoota baay'ee irraa kan fudhataman giddu-galeessa waan ta'aniif kitaabni biraa yuunitii muraasaan adda ta'e agarsiisuu danda'a.

Of eeggadhu

Barattoonni hidhoon gabaabaan hidhoo jabaa dha kan jedhu qayyabatanii atoomota adda addaa gidduutti fayyadamu. C-H 109 pm irratti moo C=C 134 pm irratti kamtu jabaa jedhamanii yoo gaafataman baay'een isaanii sababa gabaabaa ta'eef C-H jedhu; kan dadhabaan garuu isa; 413 fi 612. Seerichi kan hojjetu atoomota wal fakkaatan lama gidduutti qofa; achitti C-C, C=C fi C≡C walumaan gabaabbachaa fi jabaachaa deemu. H-H 74 pm irratti fi C-C 154 pm irratti atoomota adda addaa waan ta'aniif dheerinni kamtu cabsuuf ulfaataa akka ta'e homaa hin himu.

Molecular orbital bond orderFoormulaa

\text{Bond order} = \tfrac{1}{2}\,(N_{b} - N_{ab})

\text{Bond order} = \tfrac{1}{2}\,(N_{b} - N_{ab})

$N_{b}$: baay'ina elektiroonota molecular orbital bonding keessa jiranii
$N_{ab}$: baay'ina elektiroonota molecular orbital antibonding keessa jiranii; kanneen urjiidhaan barreeffaman

Yoom akka itti fayyadamtu

Yeroo gaaffiin molakiyuuliin yookaan ayooniin diatomic tokko uumamuu danda'aa, hidhoon isaa hangam jabaadha, yookaan paramagnetic dhaa jedhu fayyadami. Dursii molecular orbital tartiiba anniisaadhaan guuti; elektiroonota bonding fi antibonding lakkaa'i; garaagarummaa isaanii lamatti hiri: bond order duwwaan molakiyuulichi hin uumamu jechuu dha.

Of eeggadhu

Barattoonni elektiroonota configuration barreeffame keessatti argan qofa lakkaa'anii ida'ama dogoggoraatiin hir'isu. Core 1s ni galchitaa moo hin galchituu jedhii al tokko murteessii sana irratti cichi: N2 core waliin walakkaa 10 hir'isi 4; core malee walakkaa 8 hir'isi 2; lamaanuu 3 kennu. Walakkaan 10 hir'isi 2 garuu lamaan walitti waan makuuf 4 kenna. Amalli lammaffaan elektiroonota pi 2p lamaan orbitaalii tokko keessatti walitti qabuu dha. B2 tokko pi 2px keessa, tokko immoo pi 2py keessa spin tarsiimaadhaan kaa'a; sababni B2 paramagnetic ta'eefis kanuma. Akkasumas fakkii pi 2p sigma 2p jala kaa'u N2 irra hin darbin; O2 fi F2 tartiiba garagalfame fayyadamu.

Gaaffii shaakalaa boqonnaa 2

Gaaffii filannoo 10 boqonnaa kana irratti barreeffaman, tokkoon tokkoon isaanii deebii fi sababa qabu. Deebii banuu dura yaali. Gaaffiin kun Ingiliffaa tiin.

Gaaffii 1

Which statement is the definition of a chemical bond in this unit?

A.A force that pushes atoms away from each other when they meet.
B.The attractive force which holds atoms, ions, and molecules together.
C.The energy released when a metal loses its valence electrons.
D.A line drawn between two symbols in a chemical formula.

Deebii fi sababa agarsiisi

Deebii: B The attractive force which holds atoms, ions, and molecules together.

Sababa

The unit says that the attractive force which holds atoms, ions, and molecules together is called a chemical bond. The other options describe repulsion, energy, or drawing, which are not the definition.

Gaaffii 2

According to the octet rule, how many electrons should an atom try to have in its outer shell?

A.Four
B.Six
C.Eight
D.Ten

Deebii fi sababa agarsiisi

Deebii: C Eight

Sababa

The octet rule says atoms tend to gain or lose electrons until their outer shell contains an octet, which means eight electrons. Helium is the exception with two electrons.

Gaaffii 3

What is the bond length of the H₂ molecule?

A.74 pm
B.102 pm
C.138 pm
D.1.87 D

Deebii fi sababa agarsiisi

Deebii: A 74 pm

Sababa

The unit states that in the H₂ molecule the bond length is 74 pm. This is the H-H distance at minimum energy, where the molecule is most stable. The values 102 pm and 138 pm are ionic radii of sodium and potassium ions, and 1.87 D is the dipole moment of water.

Gaaffii 4

Which of these diatomic molecules is non-polar?

A.HCl
B.CO
C.NO
D.H2

Deebii fi sababa agarsiisi

Deebii: D H2

Sababa

Diatomic molecules made of atoms of the same element, such as H₂, O₂ and F₂, are non-polar because they have no dipole moment. HCl, CO and NO contain atoms of different elements, so they are polar.

Gaaffii 5

The ions in LiF and in MgO are of similar size. Which compound has the stronger ionic bonding?

A.MgO
B.LiF
C.They are equal.
D.Neither forms an ionic bond.

Deebii fi sababa agarsiisi

Deebii: A MgO

Sababa

The lattice energy depends directly on the product of the ionic charges (q₁ × q₂) and inversely on the distance between them. MgO has ions with higher charges, so the attraction is stronger when the sizes are similar.

Gaaffii 6

The radii of the sodium and potassium ions are 102 pm and 138 pm. Which compound has stronger ionic attractions, NaCl or KCl?

A.KCl
B.NaCl
C.Both are equal.
D.It cannot be decided from the data.

Deebii fi sababa agarsiisi

Deebii: B NaCl

Sababa

The sodium ion is smaller (102 pm), so the ions in NaCl sit closer together. Lattice energy is inversely related to the distance between the charges, so NaCl has the stronger ionic attraction.

Gaaffii 7

Using the VSEPR model, what is the shape of an ammonia (NH₃) molecule?

A.Linear
B.Trigonal pyramidal
C.Trigonal planar
D.Tetrahedral

Deebii fi sababa agarsiisi

Deebii: B Trigonal pyramidal

Sababa

NH₃ has three bonding pairs and one lone pair on the nitrogen. The overall arrangement of the four electron pairs is tetrahedral, but because one pair is a lone pair, the geometry of the molecule is trigonal pyramidal.

Gaaffii 8

How does the ammonium ion, NH₄⁺, form?

A.Nitrogen gives three electrons to three hydrogen atoms.
B.Two hydrogen atoms each give one electron to a shared pair.
C.A sodium atom transfers an electron to nitrogen.
D.The lone-pair electrons from the nitrogen atom of NH3 bond to H+.

Deebii fi sababa agarsiisi

Deebii: D The lone-pair electrons from the nitrogen atom of NH3 bond to H+.

Sababa

The ammonium ion forms when the lone-pair electrons from the nitrogen atom of ammonia bond to H⁺. This kind of bond is called a coordinate covalent bond, or dative bond. One atom donates both electrons.

Gaaffii 9

For NaCl, the enthalpy of formation is ΔfH° = -411 kJ mol^-1. The Born-Haber steps are: sublimation of Na = +108 kJ mol^-1; half the bond energy of Cl₂ = +120 kJ mol^-1; ionization energy of Na = +496 kJ mol^-1; electron affinity of Cl = -349 kJ mol^-1. Using Hess's law, what is the lattice energy U of NaCl?

A.-786 kJ mol-1
B.-375 kJ mol-1
C.-1050 kJ mol-1
D.+786 kJ mol-1

Deebii fi sababa agarsiisi

Deebii: A -786 kJ mol-1

Sababa

Use U = ΔfH° - (ΔH_step1 + ΔH_step2 + ΔH_step3 + ΔH_step4). The sum of the steps is 108 + 120 + 496 + (-349) = 375. So U = -411 - 375 = -786 kJ mol^-1. The -1050 kJ value belongs to LiF, not NaCl.

Gaaffii 10

Water has a resultant dipole moment of 6.23 × 10^-30 C m (1.87 D). What does this fact prove about the shape of the H₂O molecule?

A.The molecule is linear, like CO2.
B.The molecule is bent, because its O-H bond polarities do not cancel each other.
C.The molecule is tetrahedral with a zero dipole moment.
D.The O-H bonds are non-polar.

Deebii fi sababa agarsiisi

Deebii: B The molecule is bent, because its O-H bond polarities do not cancel each other.

Sababa

In CO₂, the linear shape makes the bond dipoles cancel, so the dipole moment is zero. Water has a non-zero dipole moment, so its bond polarities do not cancel. This only happens in a bent shape, and the O-H bonds are polar because oxygen is more electronegative.

Appiin boqonnaa kana irratti gaaffii 12 qaba; utuu hojjettuu ni sirreessa. Kan asii jiran 10 jalqabaa ti.

Fuula kitaabaa boqonnaa 2

Boqonnaan 2 Maxxansa Ministeera Barnootaa keessatti fuula 67 hanga fuula 144 ti.

Maxxansa Ministeera Barnootaa, Ingiliffaa, Fuula 342

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Yaadannoo gabaabaa Keemistirii kutaa 11 hunda

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